Eight Key Facts About the Byzantine Empire

Remains of the Theodosian Walls in Istanbul (author's photo).

The Byzantine Empire is famous for being the only government west of China to survive intact from ancient to medieval times. Its capture in 1453 became one of the defining moments of the Middle Ages. However, many basic facts about the Empire are not well known. Here, we present eight key facts about the Byzantine Empire that everyone interested in the topic should know.

1. Why Do We Call the Eastern Roman Empire the Byzantine Empire?

Not everybody likes the term "Byzantine Empire," considering it inaccurate in its description of the late Roman Empire. However, there is a clear historical reason for using it.

With events as ancient as the founding of Byzantium, there almost inevitably are elements of both fact and myth mixed into the "history." Below is the commonly accepted genesis of the name Byzantium. The more you study ancient history, though, the more you find that there are variations in these types of "facts" depending on what sources you follow and there is no "one story."

In 667 B.C., a man called Byzas founded a small Greek colony on the European side of the Bosporus (the strait linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean). Byzas was the son of King Nisos of the Dorian city-state Megara, a municipality in West Attica, Greece, in the general vicinity of Athens. According to legend, the oracle of Delphi suggested to King Nisos that he send his son in search of "the land opposite the city of the blind." Byzas chose the spot because the people of Chalcedon, located directly across the Bosphorus, had not settled in that spot despite its proximity and thus were blind to its possibilities.

Byzas named his new city Byzantion after himself. Over time, this name was corrupted to Byzantium. This location became increasingly important with time because it served as a transit and trade point between Europe and Asia. This trade grew steadily over the centuries. 

In 324 A.D., Roman Emperor Constantine, often called Constantine the Great, chose Byzantium as the site of "New Rome." He renamed Byzantium Constantinople (Kōnstantinoupolis, or the City of Constantine) after himself. The city was formally designated as Constantine's new capital on 11 May 330. In practice, this divided the classical Roman Empire in half, as henceforth there were two thrones and two Emperors, one in Rome and the other in Constantinople. These two separate empires theoretically were equals and operated more or less in harmony.  However, in practice, they increasingly operated independently until the Western Empire, as it became known, was overrun and conquered during the Fifth Century.

Some scholars don't like to use the term Byzantine Empire. They feel the more accurate term is "Eastern Roman Empire." While some people are emotionally invested in emphasizing that the Byzantine Empire actually was a continuation of the Roman Empire, and the citizens of that empire always considered themselves Romans, the terms "Byzantine Empire" and "Eastern Roman Empire" really are interchangeable in modern usage and both are considered acceptable in virtually all academic circles.

Stylistically, I prefer to use "Byzantine Empire" because it helps to give this offshoot of the ancient Roman Empire, which over time developed new institutions and practices, its own identity. In a formal, classical sense, calling it the "Eastern Roman Empire" is more technically accurate. however, everybody understands what you mean when you say "Byzantine Empire" and it is not derogatory so that term serves its purpose.

Statue of Constantine the Great.

2. Why Did Constantine Choose Constantinople as the New Rome?

Constantine was an expert in the economic and military conditions of the western half of the Roman Empire. He saw that it was becoming increasingly vulnerable to attack and that its economy was stagnating. He further recognized that the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire - those located east of the Adriatic - had prospered and had different defensive needs (against the Persians) than the western provinces. Thus, Constantine decided the center of gravity of the Empire had shifted east and the Roman capital should be moved to reflect this geopolitical fact.

We explore the reasons Constantine chose this particular site over others here.

A mosaic in the southwestern entrance to the Haghia Sophia in Istanbul. The Virgin Mary stands in the middle, holding the Christ child on her lap. On her right side (our left) stands emperor Justinian I, offering a model of the Hagia Sophia. On her left, Emperor Constantine I presents a model of the city (author's photo).

3. How Did the Byzantine Empire Adopt Christianity?

Christianity was made the de facto state religion of the Roman Empire by Theodosius the Great. While Constantine the Great decades earlier had issued the Edict of Milan in 313 A.D., it only wanted Christians religious toleration. Paganism remained the faith of a large proportion of the population and experienced a brief revival during the reign of Emperor Julian (361 - 363). On 27 February 380, Theodosius and his co-emperors issued the Edict of Thessalonica (also known as Cunctos populous). This finally made Nicene Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire. Paganism quickly died out (Theodosius dissolved the order of the Vestal Virgins and allowed Christians to persecute Pagans) and Christian heretics increasingly were persecuted.

Theodosius has a feast day of 17 January (the date of his death in 395) in the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox churches due to his support of Christianity.

A Byzantine coin (Solidus) depicting Theodosius the Great.

4. When Did Byzantium Become Its Own Separate Empire?

While Constantine the Great established Constantinople as the New Rome in 330 A.D., that did not create a new empire. It was still one Roman empire, simply divided for administration purposes. The real, permanent separation of Byzantium into its own, independent empire took place in 395 A.D.

Theodosius I (also called Theodosius the Great), the Roman Emperor as 395 began (he died in January), was the last man to rule both halves of the Empire. He did this from Constantinople. Upon his death in 395, the Empire formally was divided between his sons Arcadius (East) and Honorius (West). Before he died, Theodosius commissioned the great walls that protected the city for over a millennium, the Golden Gate in those walls (after which the Golden Gate Bridge in California is named), and numerous other practical structures. Theodosius more than Constantine was the true architect of the Byzantine Empire.

Justinian has become perhaps the most famous Byzantine Emperor, but there were 93 other Emperors.

5. How Many Byzantine Emperors Were There?

There were 94 Byzantine Emperors, beginning with Constantine the Great. This number includes Empresses. There were nine times when co-Emperors served at the same time, though five of these instances involved one Empress, Zoe, who never served alone.

Empress Zoe ruled through three separate husbands.

6. How Many Empresses Ruled Byzantium?

The Eastern Roman Empire had three empresses regnant. These were Irene of Athens (April 797–31 October 802), Zoë Porphyrogenita (15 November 1028 –June 1050), and Theodora, Zoe's sister (19 April 1042 – after 31 August 1056). Of these, only Irene and Theodora ruled without having a co-Emperor, and Theodora only for about one year. However, there was no question that each of these ladies actually ruled the Byzantine Empire and were the ones with real power at some point in their reigns.

The true standout was Irene. She had an outsized and lasting influence on world affairs despite her brief official reign, though most of it was indirect. Before her actual reign as Empress, Irene served as regent. She thus was the actual ruler far longer than her reign would indicate, off-and-on from 780 onward. She defied convention and even occasionally styled herself "basileus," or emperor, rather than "basilissa," or empress. Needless to say, this was highly unusual, even unique.

The Latins closely monitored events in the Eastern Roman Empire despite its lack of power in Western Europe because Constantinople retained a great deal of moral and spiritual legitimacy (and this was before the Great Schism, so technically the Byzantine Emperor was still the Pope's boss). They were incensed that a woman was acting as emperor and thus considered the throne vacant. This may have contributed to Pope Leo III's decision to crown Charlemagne as "Augustus," or  Western Emperor, on Christmas Day 800. This flagrant slap at Constantinople inflamed tensions. The coronation began the Holy Roman Empire or First Reich. This Reich would last for a thousand years, long outlive the Byzantine Empire, and be considered a precedent by Adolf Hitler and his Third Reich.

Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos, the last Emperor of Byzantium.

7. Who Were the First and Last Byzantine Emperors?

Constantine the Great is considered the first Byzantine Emperor upon establishing New Rome (Constantinople) in 330 A.D. A case can be made that Arcadius, the son of Theodosius, actually was the first ruler of Byzantium as an independent Empire beginning in 395 A.D.

Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos, named after Constantine the Great, was the last Byzantine Emperor. He ruled from 1449 until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The exact details of how Constantine XI died are murky, but it is generally accepted that he perished, sword in hand, while helping to defend the city against the Ottoman Turks.

8. When Did the Eastern Empire End?

After a 40-day siege, Muhammed II managed to take Constantinople on 29 May 1453. The Empire died with Roman Emperor Constantine XI, who perished heroically in the fighting. This was a Tuesday, and Tuesdays henceforth have been considered an unlucky day in the Greek Orthodox religion. Some remnants of the Empire survived for a time. Athens held out until 1456, the Morea was taken in 1460, and the final territory under Greek control - the Empire of Trebizond - fell in September 1461. A true Greek will tell you that the Empire never died, it is just resting.

Istanbul (author's photo).

2021

Basil II Blinds 15,000 Bulgarian Soldiers

One of the Most Savage Reprisals in History

Emperor Symeon I of Bulgaria (Sofia Cathedral).

Byzantine history is full of memorable moments that almost seem unimaginable to modern readers. One of the oddest was the savage punishment meted out by Emperor Basil II to one of the Empire's arch-enemies, the Bulgars. The dominant historical position, adopted by scholars including Edward Gibbon, George Ostrogorsky, and John Julius Norwich, is that this incident did, in fact, occur. This view derives from the writings of contemporary historian John Skylitzes. There is a minority position held by some such as historian Mark Whittow that there isn't enough evidence to prove it actually happened. We're going with the weight of authority that Basil II earned his title "The Bulgar Slayer" from the events described below: the blinding of 14,000 Bulgarian soldiers by Emperor Basil II in 1014 A.D.

Bulgarian Emperor Symeon I (Madrid collection via Кардам).

Why Bulgaria Was the Byzantine Empire's Mortal Enemy For Many Years

While the Romans chose the location of Constantinople based in part on its strategic and defensible position, the Byzantine Empire acquired a variety of deadly enemies over the centuries. One of these was the Bulgarian Empire. Relations between the Byzantines and the Bulgars ebbed and flowed, but when things got hot, they got very hot indeed.

The Byzantines did a very good job of proselytizing their Christian faith to the Bulgars. However, religion caused a lot of dissension amongst the Bulgars, with many preferring the "old ways" of paganism. The first Christian ruler was Boris-Michael, who was forced to abdicate in 889, had two sons, Vladimir and Symeon. As the eldest, Vladimir succeeded Boris, but he turned out to prefer paganism. This upset the pious Boris, who had retired to a monastery. Boris came storming out of retirement, reclaimed his authority, and had Vladimir imprisoned and blinded. We're going to see that blinding is a theme in this article.

The old man didn't want to really rule anymore, so he turned things over to his younger son, Symeon (sometimes spelled Simeon) who ruled from 893-927. Symeon soon picked a quarrel with Constantinople about trade practices (Constantinople increased tariffs and removed Bulgarian merchants from the capital to Thessaloniki). Symeon promptly invaded Byzantine territory in 894 The Byzantines then pulled one of their typical crafty moves and called in the Magyars to attack Bulgaria from the rear. The Byzantines and Magyars then squeezed Bulgaria between them, Magyars in the north and Byzantines in the south. Symeon knew how to play this game, however. He concluded a truce with the Byzantines and then called in his own allies, the Patzinaks, to attack the Magyars from their rear. After defeating the Magyars, Symeon then resumed the war against Byzantium and defeated them at Bulgarophygon in 896. The Byzantines under Leo VI sued for peace and had to pay tribute.

Map of the Bulgarian Empire under Symeon at its greatest extent (credit to Todor Bozhinov).

Things stayed quiet until a new Byzantine emperor, Alexander, decided to stop paying the tribute in 912. Symeon quickly invaded again. The Byzantine position was weakened by the fact that Alexander promptly died (913) and the rightful successor, Constantine, was only seven years old. A committee led by the Patriarch, Nicholas Mysticus, wound up running things against the bitter opposition of Alexander's widow, Zoe. All of this led to a disastrous Byzantine defeat, with the Bulgarians only stopped by Constantinople's walls. Symeon was power-mad and wanted to take over the entire Byzantine Empire and rule it himself, somewhat audacious for a Balkan ruler. The Theodosian Walls of Constantinople finally stifled this ambition, however, and he had to accept the consolation prize of being crowned Emperor of Bulgaria. He also forced the Byzantines to marry the boy Emperor, Constantine, to his daughter. This, he thought, would eventually make him the de facto Emperor of Byzantium.

After Symeon marched back to Bulgaria, however, the Byzantines essentially repudiated the deal. Zoe used the Patriarch's concessions to Symeon to grab power from Mysticus and she forbade any marriage to some Balkan princess. Symeon was enraged and invaded Byzantine territory again, taking Adrianople in 924 and basically occupying all of the Balkan portions of Byzantium (Thrace). The new war went back and forth, with devastating Byzantine defeats at Achelous (near Anchialus) and Catasyrtae. Symeon even invaded Greece all the way down to the Gulf of Corinth. Everyone knew that Constantinople could only be captured if blockaded by both land and sea, and Symeon had no fleet. Since Empress Zoe proved to be completely incompetent, the master of the Byzantine fleet, Romanus Lecapenus, wound up as co-emperor. Symeon once again invested Constantinople in 924, but failed again. He had to content himself with the empty title of Emperor of Bulgaria, and Symeon soon was distracted by a war against the Serbs.

After Symeon's death in 927, things quieted down again. However, the Byzantines deeply resented the idea that there was another emperor in Bulgaria. The whole idea of being an emperor in the Eastern Emperor was soaked in a religious justification that the emperor was God's sole representative on earth. There really couldn't be two emperors under this reasoning - why would God need two? The idea that some minor king in the Balkans was posing as an emperor was too much for the Byzantines. However, being masterful diplomats, the Byzantines placated the Bulgarian kings by calling them emperor, but inwardly they seethed.

Things remained basically unchanged for the next sixty years. The Byzantines focused on various adventures to the south, while the Bulgarians had internal issues to deal with. Things did not change until Basil II came on the scene.

Basil II the Bulgar Slayer.

Emperor Basil II

Basil II (765-925) was one of the most capable of Byzantine Emperors. After disposing of some rivals to the throne, Basil II attacked Bulgaria. Now, Bulgaria was far from innocent, as it had been taking advantage of Byzantium's internal issues for some time. After the death of Basil II's predecessor John Tzimisces, the entire Macedonian region broke out in revolt. All of this led to the elevation of Samuel, who helped things along by killing one of his own brothers.

Facial reconstruction of Emperor Samuel of Bulgaria based on his remains (courtesy Shakko).

Samuel, like Symeon, had vast pretensions. He formed again his own Patriarchate (a previous one had been abolished by Tzimisces), a calculated affront to the Byzantines. His kingdom was based at Ochrida, which, in the grand scheme of things, was uncomfortably close to Constantinople. Samuel began raiding Byzantine territory, attacking Thessaloniki and other areas attacked by Symeon. Basically, it was the Symeon situation all over again. Everybody knew that Samuel had to be dealt with and the Bulgarians put in their place once and for all. This was up to Basil II.

However, nobody in Byzantium really thought that Basill II had it in him. Revolts broke out, and Basil II had to resort to an old Byzantine trick. He called in the Russians, specifically Prince of Kiev Vladimir, who arrived in 988 with the famous Varangian Druzina (almost always just called Varangian Guard). The Varangians like the Byzantines and Basil II and stuck around as his personal guard. They quickly dealt with the rebels, and Basil II now had a crack military and a free hand.

By this point, Basil II was sick of all the revolts and foreign states taking advantage of his empire. This made him mean and hardened. Nowadays, that may seem like a bad thing, but around 1000 A.D. that was exactly what you needed to be like in order to succeed. An emperor had to be cold and pitiless or his kingdom would not last very long and his people would become slaves. Basil II decided to pay back some of the people who had been making his life miserable, and chief among them were the Bulgarians, who were considered the Empire's most dangerous enemies anyway. And, as it turned out, he had a vivid imagination as to how to do that.

So, Basil II set about not just defeating the Bulgarians, but eliminating them. They had made his accession to the throne miserable and their leader fancied himself his equal. The Byzantines had had enough. It was high time to swat down these insolent upstarts and return things to the way they ought to be - with the Emperor of Constantinople the only emperor and master of God's kingdom on earth. Basil II, it turned out, was the right man for the job.

The takeaway from all this is that Basil II both personally and as a patriot deeply resented the Bulgars and was determined to end their threat permanently. What followed was a devastating war of annihilation which went back and forth at times, but with the Byzantines generally gaining the upper hand. The war was constant, with no breaks for winter as was customary at the time, perhaps the first time in history this was done. Anyone who doubts the quality of the Byzantine military can study these campaigns in detail to reorient their thinking in the proper direction.

The blinding of Samuel's army and their return to Prilep.

The Blinding of the Bulgarian Army

This has been a lengthy and involved leadup to the topic of this article, but it was necessary. It is important to understand the depth of hate and resentment felt by the Byzantines in general and Basil II in particular toward the Bulgars to appreciate what happened next.

As Basil II made inroads on Samuel's kingdom, Samuel's supporters started to become scarce. Basil II recovered long-lost Byzantine possessions such as Dyrrachium on the Adriatic and gradually squeezed the Bulgars into a mountain stronghold. In July 1014, Basil II surrounded Samuel's remaining army in the Belasica mounts (the Battle of Kleidion) near the upper Struma River. The army was captured largely intact in a valley. Samuel escaped to Prilep, but the Bulgarian army did not. There were about 14,000 or 15,000 Bulgarian survivors - accounts differ. Having defeated the Bulgars, Basil II now adopted the title Bulgaroctonus, or Bulgar-Slayer. However, what he did next is what went down into history.

Basil II ordered that the captured Bulgars be blinded and then put into groups of one hundred men each. Each of these groups was given a single one-eyed man as a guide and sent back to Prilep to see Samuel. According to the historical accounts, when Samuel saw the blinded men approaching, he had a stroke or similar ailment and died two days later (6 October 914).

A natural question is why Basil II blinded the soldiers and didn't just make them slaves or even recruit them into Imperial service. Of course, that depends on what he was thinking, and we will never know that. There are various theories. One is that Basil II was retaliating for the loss of one of his favorite generals, Theophylact Botaneiates, and his son in an ambush right after the victory at the Battle of Kleidion. The circumstances of Botaneiates' death were murky, but one account said that Samuel's own son ran him through with a spear. Another theory is that blinding was just a typical punishment of the times according to this theory. However, while some barbaric punishments including the cutting off of noses were in fashion at the time, blinding was not generally carried out on prisoners except in rare cases where royalty was involved.

My own view is that Basil II decided that he wanted to send a very clear and unmistakable message to Samuel, and Western Union wasn't available.

The real star of our story is not Emperor Basil II, Symeon, nor Samuel. It is the walls of Constantinople, which humbled the most powerful people in the world for a thousand years. 

Conclusion

Due to the events described in this article, Basil II is a very controversial figure among students of history. He is not particularly beloved in Bulgaria and other Balkan nations. There are some who simply don't like what Basil II did and try to find creative ways to demean him or deny what he did entirely. You might think that the politics of events disappear after a thousand years, but they don't. That is just how things work when there isn't video or photographic proof and few reliable written sources. But, as noted above, this article takes the mainstream position that Basil II did defeat the Bulgars, blind its captured soldiers, and thereby end the Bulgarian Empire.

Basil II virtually ended the Bulgars as a threat to his kingdom. It was one of the decisive defeats of the Middle Ages, completely wiping out what had been considered the main threat to the Byzantine state. The Bulgarian Empire ceased to exist within a few years, and Basil II treated the conquered people magnanimously. All of this cemented his victory.  Never again did the Bulgars threaten Constantinople. Instead, they became just another minor player in the Balkans. However, they did retain their Patriarch and continued their acceptance of Eastern Orthodoxy as their enduring religion.

2021